Natural Resource Governance - Role of women in managing forests, commons and biodiversity

Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) through the formation of Water User Associations has received an impetus through the approval of the Modernisation of Command Area Development and Water Management (M-CADWM) scheme, which aims to modernise irrigation by proposing Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) to the WUAs, empowering communities to have independent management over their assets. However, the transfer of power to WUAs has overlooked the implications of the intra-community power differences for effective and equitable water management, especially from the perspective of gender.

Water User Association: The Epicentre of Local Governance in Agriculture and Irrigation

Dams are connected to several canals where the passage of water is regulated by sluice gates. Around these gates and the canal. Settlements form around canals for agriculture and related activities, creating a hydraulic society. The water available in the canal is used for irrigation in agriculture and domestic purposes. Since the water flow is controlled, its availability is limited. Therefore, efficient irrigation management is necessary to ensure last-mile delivery of this vital resource. The most recommended mechanism is the Participatory Irrigation Management, which empowers and provides autonomy to the WUAs to manage the common-pool resource. WUAs have also received legal mandates via state laws. For instance, the Maharashtra Management of Irrigation Systems by Farmers Act, 2005, which legally empowers Water User Associations (WUAs) in Maharashtra to manage irrigation systems, transferring authority from the state to farmers. It mandates democratic elections, financial transparency, and accountability to the Gram Sabha, promoting decentralized and participatory water governance. and the Assam Irrigation Water Users Act, 2004, which enables the formation of WUAs at multiple levels in Assam to oversee water distribution, infrastructure maintenance, and water charge collection. It aims to enhance community participation and reduce state dependency by giving water users direct control over irrigation management. These organised institutions have an elected body of members, which report to the Gram Sabha or Zila Parishad directly. Water User Associations (WUAs) typically distribute membership forms to villagers who wish to access water from canal systems. By signing these forms, farmers formally agree to abide by the rules and regulations set by the WUA, including payment of water charges, maintenance responsibilities, and equitable distribution protocols. This membership is essential for the villagers to become recognized beneficiaries within the irrigation network managed by the WUA. (Maharashtra Management of Irrigation Systems by Farmers Act, Government of Maharashtra, 2005; Assam Irrigation Water Users Act, Government of Assam, 2004).

The system aims to promote participatory irrigation management (PIM), where water users take collective responsibility for the operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure. As per the Ministry of Jal Shakti and various state-level irrigation reforms, this approach empowers local farmers, enhances water use efficiency, and ensures more equitable distribution of water, especially in areas where supply is limited and must be carefully managed (9th Five-Year Plan, Government of India, 2007).

By signing the membership form, the villagers not only gain access to canal water but also become stakeholders in decision-making processes regarding water scheduling, conflict resolution, and infrastructure upkeep.

Women in WUAs: Practical Implications

Legally, there are provisions for women inclusion in WUAs. The Baliraja WUA in the Mohadi Taluka, Nashik, Maharashtra, has reserved seats for female candidates across regional categories, 3 each from the head and middle ends and 4 from the tail end of the canal or any other surface or groundwater source which is being used. Women have been regarded as the forebearers of change in relation to WUAs. It is claimed that women are responsible for convincing their families to sign WUAs to receive water (CWPRG, 2021). Upon primary survey done by research team of Tata Institute of Social Sciences led by Sachin Tiwale, Sampat Kale and Suhas Bhasme, it was found that ground realities did not match these claims. Women were not actively participating in WUA decision-making and meetings. Many women were not aware of the reservation system altogether. Only around 10% of the respondents reported the inclusion of women in the committee meetings. There have been no instances of women heading WUAs (Khandker, 2020).

Causes of Non-Participation of Women

The participation of women in water user associations (WUAs) in South Asian countries, such as India, is often minimal despite the substantial involvement of women in agricultural production. This happens due to several socio-economic reasons:

Improper landholding provisions: The gender gap in property rights is one of the most important reasons for low women participation in WUAs. In most irrigation management systems or WUAs, water rights are given to “households”— typically headed by men. Further, water rights are typically allocated based on formal land rights. Women are excluded because of the lack of rights over the land (Meizen-Dick, 1998).

Inferiority in recognition: Women's involvement in water management is also often considered a waste of time, the time which could otherwise be used for household activities. A recent study has reported that the time and location of meetings are unsuitable for women (Tiwale, 2021). There is a perception in society that women are incapable of making a meaningful contribution because they are either illiterate, not aware, busy, or lack communication/negotiating skills. Another mistake which occurs is considering women as a homogenous group. The water needs of women vary significantly across age groups, yet irrigation planning often overlooks these differences. Older women may focus more on domestic tasks like cooking, cleaning, and livestock care, requiring water closer to home. Limited mobility due to age or health can further restrict their access to distant water sources. In contrast, younger women often engage in physically demanding agricultural work, requiring a steady and larger supply of water for irrigation. They may also need water for menstrual hygiene, childcare, and personal health. These differing roles and responsibilities shape their water priorities, but such contextual variations are rarely acknowledged in Water User Associations or policy frameworks, leading to unequal access and overlooked needs. The only instances of empowerment shown are those of women forming Self Help Groups or assembling in managing that area, which is of least interest to their male counterparts and society in general (Aggarwal, 1998).

Implications of non-participation of women

Limited participation of water users, particularly women, weakens the effectiveness of irrigation management by undermining communication, representation, and accountability—often resulting in free-riding, rent-seeking, and informal malpractices. Without formal membership or voice, women often rely on male relatives to represent their needs, which may not always align with theirs. This indirect access sometimes leads to coping mechanisms like water theft or unauthorized channel diversion, especially in the absence of institutional responsiveness (Ostrom, 1992).

Moreover, assumptions of community homogeneity obscure inequities among women themselves. Female-headed farms at the head end often overdraw water while contributing less labor—partly because women’s labor is undervalued and restricted by cultural norms. In some cases, official rules even bar women from contributing labor for critical maintenance tasks. As male migration increases, the rising number of female-headed farms may compel a rethinking of rules to ensure broader, more equitable inclusion (Zwarteveen & Neupane, 1996).

Towards Gender Inclusive Natural Resource Governance

A first and crucial condition for enabling adequate women’s participation is the recognition of women as resource users and managers, and the acceptance of their needs. Inclusive legal and policy mandates at the central and state levels are the first step towards ensuring recognition. At the local level of governance, such as the Gram Panchayats, an autonomous legal body should be created, for instance, a Gender Monitoring Committee that will conduct functions like gender audit of the WUAs and other local bodies, establish centres for women to register their concerns through a formal process, and run campaigns for inclusive governance structures in the agriculture and irrigation management.

Entrusting women with asset management in WUAs should begin with practical implementation. In Sabarkantha, Gujarat, the SEWA Women, Water and Work Campaign and the Millennium Water Campaign launched a microfinance scheme. Through this, women’s self-help groups (SHGs) purchased 18,000–20,000 hectares of land for farming, selected irrigation methods, and managed local water use (Panda, 2005).

At the central level, the role of women in agriculture and irrigation must be adequately recognized in the formulation of National Water Policy drafts. Women contribute significantly to agricultural labor and water management, especially in rural India, where they often bear the primary responsibility for collecting and managing household water. Despite this, they remain underrepresented in water governance structures and policy decision-making bodies. Therefore, it is crucial to incorporate the perspectives and experiences of women stakeholders—from grassroots-level water user associations (WUAs) to local self-governance institutions like Panchayati Raj—while drafting laws and policies related to water and other natural resource management. This aligns with the principles of gender mainstreaming as emphasized by the National Water Policy (2012), the National Policy for Women (2016), and international frameworks such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals (especially SDG 5 on Gender Equality and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation).

Reimagining Community Participation Through a Gender Lens

The linkages between gender, natural resource management, and communities become especially relevant for policies in the context of the current emphasis on devolution of resource management. As the state transfers responsibility and rights over natural resources – forests, pastures, fisheries, or irrigation systems – to local “communities,” membership in local resource management organisations takes on an increasingly important role in determining rights over resources. Hence, it is critical to examine and be aware of who within the communities takes on the tasks, and who controls use, decision-making, and the stream of benefits in the context of gender, especially.

References:

Aggarwal, A. (1998). Possibilities and limitations of women’s participation in water user’s organizations in India. International Irrigation Management Institute.

Government of India. (2007). Report of the Working Group on Water Resources for the 11th Five Year Plan (2007–2012). Planning Commission, Government of India.

Government of India. (2012). National Water Policy 2012. Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation.

Khandker, V. (2020). Institutional reforms in canal irrigation: Assessing the implications of participatory irrigation management in Maharashtra. Journal of Rural Development, 39(2), 211–230.

Meinzen-Dick, R. (1998). Gender, property rights, and natural resources. World Development, 25(8), 1303–1315.

Ministry of Women and Child Development. (2016). Draft National Policy for Women 2016: Articulating a Vision for Empowerment of Women. Government of India.

Ostrom, E. (1992). Crafting institutions for self-governing irrigation systems. ICS Press.

Panda, S. M. (2005). Women’s collective action and sustainable water management: Case of SEWA’s water campaign in Gujarat, India. In A. Singh (Ed.), Water and gender equity (pp. 67–82). International Water Management Institute.

Zwarteveen, M., & Neupane, N. (1996). Free riders or victims: Women’s nonparticipation in irrigation management in Nepal’s Chhattis Mauja system. IWMI.